Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a crucial secondary messenger in numerous biological processes. It transmits signals from hormones and neurotransmitters outside the cell to effectors inside the cell, thus influencing various physiological responses. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is considered a secondary messenger because it relays signals received by cell surface receptors (primary messengers) to target molecules inside […]
Category: Cardiovascular
Receptors in the Heart and Lungs
The heart and lungs are regulated by various receptors that modulate their functions in response to neural and hormonal signals. 1. Adrenergic Receptors Adrenergic receptors are crucial in the sympathetic nervous system’s regulation of cardiac and pulmonary functions. They respond to catecholamines like adrenaline and noradrenaline. 2. Cholinergic Receptors Cholinergic receptors are part of the […]
Clotting Factors, Products & Abnormalities
Clotting factors, also known as coagulation factors, are proteins in the blood that work together to form a blood clot. This process, known as coagulation, is essential for stopping bleeding when an injury occurs. Clotting factors are part of a complex cascade of events, each activating the next in a precise sequence to ensure efficient […]
ROTEM Testing
ROTEM Testing ROTEM (Rotational Thromboelastometry) testing is a diagnostic tool used to assess the coagulation status of a patient’s blood in real time. It provides detailed information on clot formation, stability, and dissolution by measuring the viscoelastic properties of blood clots. This is particularly useful in managing bleeding disorders, guiding transfusion therapy, and monitoring coagulation […]
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), also known as consumptive coagulopathy, is a serious blood clotting disorder. It occurs when the body’s normal clotting mechanisms go awry, leading to widespread clotting throughout the small blood vessels (microvascular) in the body. What happens in DIC Pathophysiology DIC involves two main phases: Stage 1: The thrombotic phase Stage Stage […]
CRP and Procalcitonin Levels
C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT) are biomarkers commonly used in clinical settings to assess inflammation, infection, and sepsis. These markers help guide diagnosis, treatment decisions, and prognostication in various medical conditions. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) CRP is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation. Its levels rise rapidly in response to […]
Cardiomyopathy 🫀😮💨
Cardiomyopathy: When the Heart Muscle Weakens Cardiomyopathy refers to diseases of the heart muscle where the myocardium becomes enlarged, thick, or rigid. In rare cases, the muscle tissue is replaced with scar tissue. These changes can impair the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively, potentially leading to heart failure or irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias) Types of […]
Left Ventricular ❣️Failure
Left ventricular failure (LVF), often referred to as left-sided heart failure, occurs when the left ventricle, the heart’s primary pumping chamber, weakens and struggles to pump blood efficiently throughout the body. This can lead to a buildup of fluid in the lungs and other organs, causing various symptoms and potentially life-threatening complications. This condition can […]
Anaphylactic 🐝🍒💊 Shock
It occurs when the body’s immune system overreacts to a foreign substance, such as food, medication, or insect stings. Definition:Anaphylactic shock is a severe, life-threatening allergic reaction that occurs rapidly and can lead to death if not promptly treated. It is characterised by widespread vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and bronchoconstriction, resulting in hypotension, respiratory distress, […]
Neurogenic 🧠⚡️Shock
Neurogenic shock is a type of distributive shock resulting from the loss of sympathetic nervous system signals to the blood vessels, causing widespread vasodilation, decreased systemic vascular resistance, and subsequent hypotension. This condition is often associated with severe spinal cord injuries at or above T6, but can also result from traumatic brain injuries or certain […]